Aerospace |
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Alpha -
Making The Station 
In strict accordance with US/Russian agreements, the Khrunichev Space Center completed a thorough check-out on the FGB module in May and was going launch it in November. However, the Space Station Control Board decided to postpone the launch by seven months. Why?
HistoryThe idea of the International Space Station (ISS), intended for a long stay in orbit, occurred in the early Nineties, after both the United States and Russia had found their national projects, Freedom and Mir-2 respectively, too expensive. The superpowers reached principal agreement on joining forces in September 1993, during a meeting between Bill Clinton and Boris Yeltsin. Referred to at early stages as "Alpha," the Station attracted several other nations willing to participate in this peaceful, co-operative research effort in space. General political guidance for the project has been the responsibility of the Intergovernmental Commission for US/Russian Cooperation headed by US Vice President Albert Gore and Russian Premier Victor Chernomyrdin. Technical issues have been discussed and solved within the Space Station Control Board (SSCB) between NASA and the Russian Aerospace Agency (RSA). Because the Russians had gone a long way with the Mir orbital space station, they undertook building Alpha's core, which would serve as a platform for attaching scientific, research, habitation and other modules. Two spacecraft forming the core would be further derivatives of well-tried Mir modules to reduce technological risks, overall cost and time needed for their development and manufacturing. The core would provide flight control and power for the whole station, and living quarters for six crews. Once the International Space Station was meant to be a symbol of US/Russian
co-operation, its first element had to be a joint venture. In August 1995,
Boeing, acting NASA's general contractor for Alpha,
Functional Cargo BlockThe bulk of work on the core modules was laid on Khrunichev. In addition to building the outer shells, the company also provides Proton launch vehicles. Konstantin Lantratov, a senior expert with Khrunichev, states that since 1995 the Moscow-based manufacturer has tried hard to fulfill its obligations on the FGB and SM projects in full accordance with interstate agreements.
"On 15 May we completed the 'complex electrical checkout' (integrated system testing) on the FGB - we checked all the avionics and on-board systems, including the flight control system," says Lantratov, "and on the following day the module was ready for journey to the Baikonur cosmodrome." In terms of formalities, by mid-May Khrunichev had successfully completed 36 out of 39 "milestones" formulated in the contract with Boeing and within the timeframe set by Gore and Chernomyrdin. However, the SSCB made the decision to postpone the FGB shipment to Baikonur for January, with the respective change in the launch date from 17 November 1997 to 30 June 1998. This postponement was needed to carry out additional work on the FGB, ending up with a new 'complex electrical checkout' in December. Lantratov says that in the nearest future Boeing and Khrunichev are going to sign a USD $35 million deal on modernization of the FGB as a follow- on to the primary one worth USD $215 million. Technical details on the modernization had been agreed upon in the middle of May. Initially, the FGB could refill its tanks only via the SM; now the refuelling system is being modified to take fuel directly from Progress supply vehicles. For this purpose the lower docking port on the mating adapter will be fitted with relevant pneumatic and fuel tubing. Moreover, the port will receive additional wiring, giving the FGB the capabilities of docking with Soyuz manned spacecraft, receiving essential data from the docked vehicle and feeding FGB systems from Soyuz batteries. To stay connected with a Soyuz or Progress vehicle for a long time, the FGB central computer's software is being re-written. Originally, the FGB's flight control system "knew" only two possible configurations - the FGB alone and FGB plus Node-1, which is an American-built mating adapter. In the modified form the FGB will be able to control the ISS through Flight 7A and even after it. As a result of the changes, the FGB dry weight has increased, demanding a 200-kg reduction in the its capacity (down to 5,500 kg) and using the booster capabilities to their full extent. The Proton booster is the Russian contribution to Flight 1A/R, estimated at USD $140 million. The rocket for the FGB is now in Khrunichev's final assembly shop with engines and tanks already installed. The Proton's flight control system, avionics, pneumatics and other systems are being mounted. According to Lantratov, Khrunichev has paid its subcontractors for everything and experiences no difficulties in getting parts for the booster.
Service ModuleThe second core element in the International Space Station is built entirely on Russian Space Agency money. Roughly, creation and launch of the Service Module is going to cost the Agency USD $260-300 million. Comparable with the FGB in weight (both are in excess of 20 t) and size, the SM is somewhat more complicated in terms of on-board systems.
There are two major companies involved in creation of the Service Module, namely Khrunichev Center and Energia Corporation. The former is tasked with construction of the outer shell and fitting it with essential systems, while the latter has to install the avionics suite and conduct launch preparations. Khrunichev has completed construction work on both the Flying Object SM, which will go in space, and its one-for-one copy, the Electrical Analog SM, which is a test-bed. On 16 June Khrunichev shipped the latter to Energia. After outfitting the Analog with avionics and additional systems, Energia people will give them a thorough check-over before re-installing into the Flying Object SM, which will arrive in August. No changes to the Service Module are planned in reflection to the modifications being made to the FGB.
Cash ShortageAlmost from the very outset, both Khrunichev and Energia have had lots of problems with the Service Module caused by inadequate funding. In 1996, the two companies together received Rbs 260 billion out of Rbs 800 billion allocated for the SM in the RSA budget. Khrunichev received only Rbs 53 billion, including Rbs 6 billion in cash. Unhappy with the inadequate budgetary funding, in January 1997, Khrunichev General Director Anatoly Kiselev took a USD $35 million two-year loan from a commercial bank. This loan, together with cash flow from commercial launches, has helped Khrunichev to keep on schedule with the SM. "I have no doubt that we will ship the SM to Energia in August, just on the timetable Gore and Chernomyrdin agreed upon a year ago," Lantratov says. Unfortunately, Energia Corporation has not found money to fulfil its part in the SM on time. Lantratov explains, "Khrunichev is able to take credits from private banks - they deal with us because we can pay back from commercial launches of Proton boosters." Unlike Khrunichev, Energia has not had many commercial orders, instead depending heavily on the state budget. The company did not have cash to pay subcontractors, which resulted in delays with delivery of several important systems for the Service Module. While Kiselev did all he could to rescue Russia's reputation as a reliable partner, certain high-ranking persons did not pay too much attention to it. Lantratov carries on, "On three occasions Chernomyrdin promised to provide steady financing for the Station, but only after his fourth promise we seem to have started getting cash." The turning point came in April, when President Boris Yeltsin met RSA head Yuri Koptev. They spoke about how to prevent the Russian cosmonautics from collapse. In 1996, the country spent USD $535 million from its budget on space programs - eight times lower than ten years ago. Faced with economic difficulties, the nation cannot afford to fund numerous research projects, said Yeltsin, but the ISS should remain a priority. The President ordered a direct telephone link between his and Koptev's desks and promised to transfer into RSA's account Rbs 800 billion by the end of April and Rbs 700 billion by the end of May. Together that makes Rbs 1.5 trillion, which is the minimum RSA needs in 1997 to keep work on the most critical ISS elements on schedule. It was not easy to find such a large amount of money in the poor country, and Victor Chernomyrdin decided to "smoothen" the cash flow intensity. He allocated Rbs 400 billion monthly for RSA in April and May, moving Rbs 700 billion remaining to June and July. At the end of April the Ministry of Finance conducted a tender between commercial banks willing to provide a Rbs 800 billion loan for RSA under state guarantees. Five banks were chosen: the International Industrial Bank, Sobinbank, Moscow National Bank, Neftekhimbank and Eurofinance.
New ScheduleDue to a number of financial and technical difficulties, several elements in the Station's early configuration were months behind the schedule that Gore and Chernomyrdin signed in June 1996. Although the FGB and its booster were able to fly on time, in May the SSCB decided to delay Flight 1R/A. Lantratov explains, "The Americans are three months behind the schedule with the Node-1, the SM is even seven months behind... Had SSCB decided to launch the FGB 'as is' in November, the Block would have wasted its fuel and power within one year and died before the arrival of the Service Module".
Yuri Koptev says that if the Government provides Rbs 1.5 trillion this year, then the SM can be launched next December (instead of April in the initial schedule). As soon as the Module gets connected to the already-orbiting "FGB + Node-1" assembly, Bill Shepherd, Yuri Gidzenko and Sergei Krikalev will get abroad a Soyuz to establish a permanent human presence at the Station. Apart from the money shortage, the Service Module has suffered from technical problems. Among those are difficulties with a "permanent communications" system working in conjunction with relay satellites and a very advanced flight control system incorporating a new computer from the European Space Agency (ESA). "The Europeans are having problems with creating software for the computer, so not only Russians are responsible for the delays with the Service Module," Lantratov points out. The entire Station is very vulnerable to SM failure and if it does happen, the ISS may either not be assembled at all, or be delayed by two years at least. If the worst happens to the SM, then NASA and RSA will, theoretically, be able to continue attempts to build the Station - in the modified form the FGB can correct its orbit, receiving fuel from Progress tankers and expendables from the Space Shuttle. After arrival of the US Lab, which is now being fitted with life- support facilities, the Station may host astronauts arriving on Soyuz and Space Shuttle missions.
Large Cargo VehicleIf the new ISS assembly sequence goes as planned, then Energia would have to provide as many as 15 Soyuz and Progress spacecraft for both Mir and Alpha in 1999. RSA is planning to reduce the load on the manufacturer by ordering four BGK freighters ("Bolshoi Korabl Snabzheniya" or "Large Cargo Vehicle" in Russian) from Khrunichev. Based on the FGB's outer shell (with engines in lieu of the connecting adapter) and major systems, the BGK will have a cargo capability of 10 t instead of 4 t for the ordinary Progress. Lantratov says the design work on the BGK will not take a long time, because Khrunichev engineers are going to use many design solutions found during development of the TKS ("Transportny Korabl Snabzheniya" or "Cargo Supply Vehicle" in Russian) for the shelved "Almaz" manned military station. If RSA provides steady financing for the BGK, the first vehicle will be assembled in 1999.
Beyond The ImpossibleThe International Space Station is going to be an expensive journey into the unknown. Yuri Koptev estimates that assembly and 15-year period of operation in orbit would cost all the participants some USD $50 billion. He estimated Russian contribution at USD $10.6 billion, including $3.3 billion at the stage of design and deployment of basic elements. The Russian Space Agency will hardly earn enough money on the international market to cover all that expense. However, the commercial sector may help RSA remain a key ISS participant - in 1996, Russia earned USD $472 million on space activities; this year the figure is expected to be USD $650-700 million, rising to USD $1 billion in the year 2000. There are numerous concerns in the world about Russia's ability to find
requisite budgetary financing for the Station. One thing is obvious: Russia
must forget her old ambitious plan on a leading role in the project and
prepare a more realistic one reflecting today's realities. Even if the deplorable
economic situation in the country would steadily improve over the next five
years, Russia will hardly be in a position to save for herself the current
share of 38% in the overall resources and 50% in scientific equipment of
the so-far non-existent 408-t orbital facility. There is no other way for
RSA other than to complete and deploy the Service Module and take back some
of the old, big promises that do not match the contents of the country's
wallet. |
awarded Moscow-based Khrunichev Research and Production
Space Center a contract for design and construction of the Functional Cargo
Block ("Funktsionalno-gruzovoi blok" or FGB in Russian, better
known to Khrunichev workers as "Article 77KM #17501"). In its
turn, RSA named Energia Rocketry Space Corporation the leading contractor
for the Service Module ("Sluzhebny Modul" or SM).
Created on the
basis of the Mir core module, the SM carries the environmental control and
life support systems, enabling a permanent human presence at the Station.
It also provides the primary docking capability for Progress freighters
and Soyuz crew carriers. Besides, the SM is meant to provide propulsive
attitude control and reboost capability for the whole Station.
